Sandy Soils
Sandy Soils have a gritty texture and are formed from weathered rocks such as limestone, quartz, granite, and shale. If sandy soil contains enough organic matter it is easy to cultivate, however it is prone to over-draining and summer dehydration, and in wet weather it can have problems retaining moisture and nutrients.
Silty Soil
Silty soil is considered to be among the most fertile of soils. Usually composed of minerals (predominantly quartz) and fine organic particles, it has more nutrients than sandy soil yet still offers good drainage. When dry it has rather a smooth texture and looks like dark sand. Its weak soil structure means that it is easy to work with when moist and it holds moisture well.
Clay Soil
When clay soils are wet they are very sticky, lumpy and pliable but when they dry they form rock-hard clots. Clay soils are composed of very fine particles with few air spaces, thus they are hard to work and often drain poorly - they are also prone to water logging in spring. Blue or grey clays have poor aeration and must be loosened in order to support healthy growth. Red colour in clay soil indicates good aeration and a "loose" soil that drains well. As clay contains high nutrient levels plants grow well if drainage is adequate.
Loamy Soil
Considered to be the perfect soil, Loamy soils are a combination of roughly 40 % sand, 40% silt and 20% clay. Loamy soils can range from easily workable fertile soils full of organic matter, to densely packed sod. Characteristically they drain well, yet retain moisture and are nutrient rich, making them ideal for cultivation.
Peaty Soil
Peaty soil contains more organic material than other soils because its acidity inhibits the process of decomposition. This type of soils contains fewer nutrients than many other soils and is prone to over-retaining water. Through good management and use of fertiliser and artificial drainage excellent plants can be grown.
Chalky Soil
Chalky soils are alkaline, usually light brown in colour, and contain large quantities of stones of varying sizes. They dry out quickly in the summer and have a tendency to block trace elements such as iron and manganese so that they are unavailable to plants - this in turn causes poor growth and yellowing of leaves. Chalky soil is extremely poor quality and needs regular, substantial addition of fertilizers and other soil improvers.
In addition to the states, several other areas belong to the United States:
1.AS American Samoa.
2.DC District of Columbia, which is the seat of the Federal government.
3.GU Guam.
4.MP Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth.
5.PR Puerto Rico, Commonwealth.
6.VI the United States Virgin Islands.
http://www.yourchildlearns.com/mappuzzle/us-puzzle.html
Rivers In North America-2
Brazos : This Texas river begins in the northern part of the state in Stonewall County, and flows southeast into Brazoria County and the Gulf of Mexico. It's (840 miles) (1,351 km) in length.
Churchill:
This river of central Canada rises in north-western Saskatchewan, then flows east into Manitoba, and on into Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lakes and is known for the rapids along its path. It's (1,000 miles) (1,609 km) in length.
Colorado:
Beginning in the Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado, it moves southwest, ending in the Gulf of California. It's (1,450 miles) (2,333 km) in length and over the centuries formed numerous canyons along its winding path. The most famous of these is the Grand Canyon in northern Arizona. The river has more than 30 electric power plants along its run, as well as dozens of dams and reservoirs.
Columbia:
This wide, fast-flowing river begins in the Canadian Rockies of southeast British Columbia, Canada, flowing south through the State of Washington, then forming the natural border between Washington and Oregon. It ends in the Pacific Ocean and is (1,152 miles) (1,857 km) in length. Hydroelectric power development in the river basin brought inexpensive electricity to the Pacific Northwest, but it severely affected salmon spawning and local fish migration.
Ohio:
Formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the Ohio flows generally southwest. It forms the natural borders of Ohio and West Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky, as well as parts of the borders of Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky. It empties into the Mississippi River at the Illinois border and is (975 miles) (1,569 km) long.
Rio Grande:
It is one of the longest rivers in North America at (1,885 miles) (3,034 km). It begins in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, then flows south through New Mexico. It forms the natural border between Texas and the country of Mexico as it flows southeast to the Gulf of Mexico. In Mexico it is known as Rio Bravo del Norte. Used for drinking water by both countries, the river is becoming more polluted as population centers that dot the river grow in size, and then dump sewage and pesticides into the water.
St. Lawrence:
This river flows northeast out of Lake Ontario and on into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It's (760 miles) (1,225 km) in length and permits the passage of deep-water ships between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. It includes a series of man-made canals, locks and dams, and is considered one of the most vital shipping routes on the planet.
Yukon:
It begins in the southwestern edge of the Yukon Territory of Canada, and then flows northwest across the border into Alaska. This massive river continues southwest across central Alaska, ending at the Bering Sea. Even at a length of (1,265 miles) (2.035 km), most of it is navigable, however, it remains frozen from October through mid-June.
Activity : Try to Memorise the names of the rivers along with their Origin and Length of these Rivers..
Rivers In North America-1
Fraser:
This river of British Columbia, Canada, begins in the Canadian Rockies near Yellowhead Pass, then flows in a variety of directions (generally south), finally turning west to empty into the Strait of Georgia, just south of Vancouver. It's (850 miles) (1,368 km) in length.
Mackenzie:
It's the longest river in Canada and dissects the Northwest Territories. It flows generally northwest into Mackenzie Bay and the Beaufort Sea. This historic river was discovered by Sir Alexander MacKenzie, and along its path are thick, green forests and dozens of major lakes. It's (1,200 miles) (1,800 km) in length. If then combined with its tributaries - the Slave, Peace and Finlay rivers - it extends to (2,635 miles) (4,240 km), and becomes the second longest river in North America, second only to the Mississippi/Missouri river system combination at (3,877 miles) (6,236 km) in length.
***Mississippi:
It is the major river of North America and the United States at (2,339 miles) (3,765 km) in length. It flows from northwestern Minnesota south to the Gulf of Mexico, just below the city of New Orleans. It is a significant transportation artery and when combined with its major tributaries (the Missouri and Ohio rivers) it becomes the third largest river system in the world at (3,877 miles) (6,236 km) in length.
***Missouri:
It begins in southern Montana in the Rocky Mountains, first flowing north then generally southeast across the heart of the United States, ending at the Mississippi River, just to the north of St. Louis, Missouri. It is the longest river in the United States (2,500 miles) (4,023 km).
Work to do Now...
1.Please try to Memorise the Names of these Rivers as well as their origin and their Lengths..
2.Write some About these Now on the WhiteBoard.
Imagine 40,000 years ago ... the last great ice sheet still covers much of the north. You are a hunter with your family, tracking animals for food and for hides to make warm clothing. You carry a stone-tipped spear. On foot, you follow wild herds through the cold and fog. You cross a bridge of ice. On the other side, you find a new land. You do not know that it is a new land. You only know that there are no human enemies to stop you.
You keep pushing south, following the herds. You find paradise - elk, deer, bison, wild vegetables, wild fruits - and forests, with so many trees - and squirrels and rabbits. Fish leap from the streams.
As time goes by, other people find their way across the frozen land.
Many years pass. The ice begins to melts. Now there is a wide strip of water where once there was a walkway of thick ice. Still, people find their way across the Bering Strait in boats of bark and hide ...
For many hundreds of years, people wandered into the great northwest. They wandered in all directions across Canada and the United States. These early people were not only skilled farmers, they were also clever builders, engineers, and weavers. They made artistic pottery without a pottery wheel. They loved games of skill. They created stories and poetry. Although they spoke many different languages, and had many different customs, they had at least one thing in common - they were all immigrants.
Native Americans are not actually natives. They are immigrants, like everyone else in this country. Some scientists say the first people arrived in the United States over forty thousand years ago from Asia, crossing the frozen sea. Some say twenty thousand years ago. It is safe to say that Native American culture is really old, as old as that of Ancient China.
Typically, when we first study an ancient culture, we look at the artifacts they left behind. But there is not much left. The early people of the Americas believed in using things they found in nature. They did their best to disturb nature as little as possible. Scientists have found pictographs carved on rocks, which tell us some things, but not nearly enough.
And normally, we look at oral histories and ancient proverbs, both of which can tell us a great deal about the daily life and beliefs of the people who created them.
But things are not that easy when exploring ancient American cultures. Many oral histories were lost when European explorers and settlers came to the Americas. They brought disease. The People became ill with smallpox and other diseases. Many died. Much was lost.. Native Americans did not use proverbs to teach their children about their beliefs and culture. They used games, myths, dance, and impersonation, all of which are a very fun way to learn.
Today, there are over 500 federally recognized tribes in the United States alone. Tribes are ruled by representative tribal governments. Native Americans today have a variety of jobs, including doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, ministers, writers, artists, and workers of all sorts. But they also hold jobs like tribal leaders.
Neat frame houses have replaced former wigwams and tepees. Kids go to public school. Some kids additionally attend tribal school, especially tribal pre-school, where they learn about their traditions. Much has been lost, but much has been saved through the hard work of today's tribal leaders.
It's been an interesting study for us, one we intend to continue. The more we learn, the more we want to learn about the fascinating culture of these clever, creative, generous individuals, who call themselves collectively "The People".
Come meet the early people of the Americas in olden times. Learn what people invented to make themselves happy and comfortable. Read fabulous myths! Play games. Meet mischievous magical beings. Explore the daily life of the people who lived in the Americas a long time ago - some of them right here, in your backyard.
Modern Geography
Some people have trouble understanding the completescope of the discipline of geography because, unlike most other disciplines, geography is not defined by oneparticular topic. Instead, geography is concerned with many different topics—people, culture, politics, settlements, plants, landforms, and much more.
What distinguishes geography is that it approaches the study of diverse topics in a particular way (that is, from a particular perspective). Geography asks spatialquestions—how and why things are distributed or arranged in particular ways on Earth’s surface. It looks at these different distributions and arrangements at many different scales. It also asks questions about how the interaction of different human and natural activities on Earth’s surface shape the characteristics of the world in which we live.
Geography seeks to understand where things are found and why they are present in those places; how things that are located in the same or distant places influence one another over time; and why places and the people who live in them develop and change in particular ways. Raising these questions is at the heart of the “geographic perspective.”
Exploration has long been an important part of geography. But exploration no longer simply means going to places that have not been visited before. It means documenting and trying to explain the variations that exist across the surface of Earth, as well as figuring out what those variations mean for the future.
The age-old practice of mapping still plays an important role in this type of exploration, but exploration can also be done by using images from satellites or gathering information from interviews. Discoveries can come by using computers to map and analyze the relationship among things in geographic space, or from piecing together the multiple forces, near and far, that shape the way individual places develop.
Applying a geographic perspective demonstrates geography’s concern not just with where things are, but with “the why of where”—a short, but useful definition of geography’s central focus.
The insights that have come from geographic research show the importance of asking “the why of where” questions. Geographic studies comparing physical characteristics of continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for instance, gave rise to the idea that Earth’s surface is comprised of large, slowly moving plates—plate tectonics.
Old Maps
People have been making maps for thousands of years. One of the oldest known maps was found near the city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Most geographers say it dates from 2500 BCE. It is a palm-sized block of clay depicting an area with two hills and a stream. (Some geographers think the stream is a canal made by people for irrigation.) Geographers have identified one of the towns on the map. However, they are not sure exactly what the hand-held map represents.
Ancient maps could also be quite large. A nine-foot wall painting in Catal Hyuk, Turkey, was made about 6000 BCE. It is a map of a busy city, complete with crowded housing and even an erupting volcano. However, some scientists believe this "map" is decorative and not an accurate representation of what was there.
Wrong-Way Corrigan
The American aviator Douglas Corrigan is often nicknamed "Wrong-Way Corrigan" because of a navigational error he made on a flight in 1938. Corrigan had just piloted a very impressive flight from Long Beach, California, to New York, New York. He was scheduled to fly back to Long Beach. Instead, with the sky covered in clouds, Wrong Way Corrigan flew to Dublin, Ireland.Gazetteer
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.
The term "geography" comes to us from the ancientGreeks, who needed a word to describe the writings andmaps that were helping them make sense of the world in which they lived. In Greek, geo means “earth” and -graphy means “to write.” Using geography, Greeks developed an understanding of where their homeland was located in relation to other places, what their own and other places were like, and how people and environments were distributed.
Of course, the Greeks were not the only people interested in geography. Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand something about their place in the world, and the people and environments around them.
Indeed, mapmaking probably came even before writing in many places. But ancient Greek geographers were particularly influential. They developed very detailed maps of areas in and around Greece, including parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia.